"Slinging Stones..." Blog by Mrs. Dorothy Barron

November’s Tribute to Native Americans - Nations comprised of a Rich Heritage and Culture Pt. 4 compiled and written by Mrs. Dorothy Barron

               November’s Tribute to Native Americans

Nations comprised of a Rich Heritage and Culture Pt. 4 compiled and written by Mrs. Dorothy Barron

 [i]“I do not know what I will do or be on tomorrow, but I do know from whence I have come; what I have done and become up to this present moment” (Mrs. Dorothy Barron).

              
      Photo #1 Navajo Man                                              Photo #2 Indian Life

On today and in Part 4 of Tribute to Native Americans, we will conclude our tribute by briefly looking at and providing a general overview of the present state of Native or Indian Americans- where they are; of what their lives consist and list twelve laws which were meant to protect, rectify and or provide repatriation for past abuses and violations against Native or Indian Americans. Finally, (20)Contributions made by some Native or Indian Americans to society have been listed, as well as twenty (20) things you may not have known about Native or Indian Americans prior to this written Tribute. 

What we do know is that Native and Indian Americans are alive; a vital and viable part of the 21^st Century in America and can very well speak for themselves; I requested and received permission from Indian Country Today Media Network to list it as a Resource and provide a link, which has been posted below. In addition, another site and a children’s resource site has been listed. For information on specific Native or India American Nations and Tribes, please look up each at its official website, if listed. Professor Brent Cox, who is considered an expert on Native American culture and Spirituality, as well as a descendent of the Catawba and Cherokee Nations, has offered his knowledge and insight throughout this Tribute.

Native or Indian Americans on Today

Where are Native or Indian American Nations and tribes today and of what does life consist for them?

[ii]On today, there are approximately 2.8 million Native Americans living in the US; many Native Americans remain on reservations of which 562 are federally recognized tribes by the US government; three states- California, Arizona and Oklahoma house over one-third of the Native American population (Wikipedia). [iii]The largest Native American populations are comprised of Navajo, Cherokee, Choctaw, Sioux, Chippewa, Apache, Blackfeet, Iroquois and Pueblo (Wikipedia. Current Legal Status and Contemporary Issues) and the land size of reservations elicited the following: [iv]of the 50 largest federal recognized Indian reservations - the largest is comprised of 24,096.30 square miles; the second three largest consists of from 6.8 to 4.4,000 square miles and the remaining reservations less than 3,000 square miles (Wikipedia).  

[v]The most common languages spoken here in America by Native or Indian Americans are Dene, Na-Dene and Algic (Wikipedia. Ethno-Linguistic Classification). It has been noted that of all ethnic groups in America, Native Americans are the most impoverished (Wikipedia. Barriers to Economic Development).

The largest departure en-masse from Indian Reservations since forced relocation was during the advent of World War II; [vi]“44,000 Native Americans served in the US military” (Wikipedia. WWII).  Once the war was over, many Native Americans were not amendable to returning to isolation and financial poverty.  As most are aware the 1950 and 60’s were turbulent years of civil unrest in America due to repression, and suppression of certain races and/or Nations being denied their rights and equality. America had become a "civil rights movement" war zone; African Americans took a persistent stand for equality and the removal of "Jim Crow" laws, which eventually strained both the government and a divided nation. For Native or Indian Americans, the period of unrest for them climaxed and culminated in the [vii]1973Wounded Knee Incident, led by the American Indian Movement (AIM) and Oglala Sioux Civil Rights Organization (OSCRO). (Wikipedia. Wounded Knee Incident). Movements of both Native Americans and African Americans greatly impacted and in part brought about changes to and for past injurious Laws. For Native or Indian Americans, establishment of Laws in the 20th and 21st Century restored some of their sovereign rights, while others were written to protect them and their rights.

Although, the US government recognizes certain tribes as being sovereign, the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) under the US Department of Interior has oversight of these sovereign tribes. As sovereign Nations, some Native Americans disagree with this state of affairs and desire to be treated as individual Nations and accorded interaction from and with the US State Department.

There is much controversy as to how much “control” Native Americans actually have over their lives and affairs as Sovereign Nations. Their lands inclusive of mineral rights are held in trust by the US government; [viii]bills from both Congressional parties have moved to either have tribal government terminated or a specific Native American Nation terminated (Wikipedia).

Commissions have been established of which Native American tribes recognized by the federal government must submit and seek approval to conduct business; one of which is the National Indian Gaming Commission, which oversee Tribal Gambling on reservations.

It appears the government’s effort of self-determination or extermination has 1) reduced and left Great Nations of Native or Indian Americans dependent upon it for their very existence. If one compared their earlier existence with their existence on today, one would have to arrive at the conclusion that forced reformation, assimilation and relocation of Native or Indian Americans onto reservations, as a whole have been a resounding and abysmal failure. Health conditions, alcoholism and suicide have and continue to greatly affect tribes’ population rolls.

I do not think the public at large truly knows how much was really taken from Native or Indian Americans or eradicated from their cultures and customs; some Acts listed below which served to restore some of their rights, culture, customs and dignity due to public denigration should give an indication.

As referenced in Part 3 of this Tribute, the Indian Peace Commission in their findings on June 7, 1868, noted [ix]“…the Indian Wars were completely preventable had the United States government and its representatives acted with legal and moral honesty in dealing with the Indians" (Wikipedia. Medicine Lodge Treaty). I, too, believe had their actions been different, as a result and in many ways, America would be a better place and in a better place. Native or Indian Americans had and would have continued to rise to whatever challenges necessary to remain independent while making crucial changes to sustain themselves and their cultures as they and other cultures interacted, gained common ground and merged. Most Native or Indian Americans have never claimed ownership of this land until they were forced to and in many instances simply to prevent further desecration.

Native or Indian Americans have always been resourceful individuals. Even now, they have and continue to pick up the pieces of their lives and cultures and rebuild – hallmarks of courage, resourcefulness and self-determination of a great people.  It is my understanding that some tribes have requested the right to use their lands held in trust for the financial benefit of their own tribes, but was provided instead with gambling casinos – an enterprise foreign to their cultures and controversial even among some tribes; however, some tribes are using the profits to establish their own educational institutions; re-introduce lost customs, languages and other traditions, as well as establishing large agricultural and other projects.

You will also view below individual contributions to society by some Native or Indian Americans; many as a result of their natural abilities – training only enhanced what many already possessed. [x]It has been noted that the Great Law of the Iroquois Confederacy (now thought to be earlier than the noted period of 15^th or early 16^th Century) served as a model or “influence” for the United States Constitution and Bill of Rights; as acknowledged by Congress in its 1988 Concurrent Resolution Bill 331 (Wikipedia). 

Changes to Previous  or Newly Created Laws to Protect Native or Indian Americans  and that which they owned (12) 

Moving onto reservations did not stop Native or Indian Americans from attempting to right wrongs; many continued filing court cases for redress of old grievances and new ones. Let us now look at some federal laws which attempts to protect, rectify and/or provide repatriation to Native or Indian Americans. Let us hope that these were, are and will be more effective in protecting both them and their rights on today than previous treaties, and those laws created by Congress.

1. [xi]1906- Antiquities Act – Act passed by Congress and signed into law by President Theodore Roosevelt; it restricted public use of lands owned by the government. In an effort to protect Native or Indian Americans, Indian bones and objects found on federal lands became the property of the United States Government. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiquities_Act
2. [xii]1934 Indian Reorganization Act (Federal Law) - signed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt; the "Indian New Deal" provided a number of important changes for Native or Indian Americans of which consisted of restoration of tribes’ sovereignty; established self-determination and reversal of part the Dawes' Act. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Reorganization_Act
3. [xiii]1968 Indian Civil Rights Act was passed. It recognized Indian tribes as sovereign nations and provided some guarantees under the United States Constitution Bill of Rights which did not conflict with the political and cultural structure of Native or Indian American Sovereign governments. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968
4. [xiv]1975 Self-Determination and Educational Assistance Act - This law initiated a process in which the US government recognized tribes' sovereign rights to determine, control and govern their own affairs. The act also gave some government agencies the authority to enter into contracts and provide grants to tribes federally recognized by the US Government. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_American_self-determination
5. [xv]1978 Indian Child Welfare Act (federal Law) - As stated in Part 3, removal of Native American children from their parents and community reached a crisis point; the 1978 Indian Child Welfare Act restored the Tribal government's authority in custody cases that involved the removal of a child from the reservation. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Child_Welfare_Act  
6. [xvi]1978 American Indian Religious Freedom Act - (Federal Law and Concurrent resolution by Congress) -acknowledged that it violated Native or Indian Americans' right to exercise their religion or religious belief and restored their religious and ceremonial rights, access to and use of religious sites (with some limitations). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Indian_Religious_Freedom_Act
7. [xvii]1989 National Museum of the American Indian Act (Public Law) - made the National Museum of the American Indian a part of the Smithsonian Institute..." which dedicates itself "...to the life, languages, literature, history, and arts of the Native Americans of the Western Hemisphere." It has been charged with the responsibilities of inventory and repatriations to Indian Tribes; it also houses the large Indian American collection of GG Heye. The NMAI has three locations operated by the Smithsonian Institute. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_the_American_Indian
8. [xviii]1990 Native American Language Act (Public Law) - restored to Native or Indian Americans were their rights and the right to use their own languages of which they were stripped during their “culturalization and assimilation” into America's Caucasian society. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_American_Languages_Act_of_1990
9. [xix]1990 Native American Grave and Protection and Repatriation Act - protects the graves, human remains and sacred objects “cultural items” found at and within Native or Indian American graves and sacred sites. It mandates the return of the aforementioned items to their rightful owners from government agencies and institutes which receive federal funding. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_American_Graves_Protection_and_Repatriation_Act
10. [xx]1990 Indian Arts and Crafts Act (Public Law) - "truth in advertising law," which carriers civil and/or criminal penalties for misrepresentation of Indian arts and crafts products (after 1935) via “display, marketing and/or selling”. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990_Indian_Arts_And_Crafts_Act
11. [xxi]1994 Presidential Memorandum: Government to Government with Native American Tribal Governments - was issued by US President Bill Clinton to federal officers of the United States government with a charge to respect and operate on a government to government basis with Native American Tribes, who were/are Sovereign Nations or governments.  President Clinton signed Executive Order 13175 in November of 2000. http://www.hhs.gov/intergovernmental/tribal/executiveorders.html
12. [xxii]2009 Apology to Native Peoples – was signed into law by President Barack Obama as a result of Republican Senator Sam Brownback’s introduction of Senate Joint Resolution 37 in 2004; it offered “…an apology to all Native Peoples on behalf of the United States for past “ill-conceived policies” by the US government regarding Indian Tribes.” (Wikipedia) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States#Self-determination

 Now, let us look at the following (note: the bold comments in quotations in this section are additions by the author of this tribute):

Some Contributions to Society by Native or Indian Americans (20)

 

1.     [xxiii]Some Native American Women Warriors - “Not without us” – Hate Woman (Blackfoot); Hanging Cloud (Ojibwa); Minnie Hollow Wood (Lakota) and Moving Robe Woman (Hunkpapa Sioux Lakota) rode into battle as did their men and/or beside them. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Native_American_women_of_the_United_States (if you click this link, scroll down to each woman’s name and click) Lozen (Apache1840-1890) and Dahteste (Chiricahua Apache) – “I don’t think we have ever heard of Women’s Rights” - Women Warriors who wrote and fought in battle beside Geronimo http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lozen and http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dahteste

2.    [xxiv]Dekanawidah or the Great Peacemaker (15^th or early 16^th Century) “Champion for Peace” – Author of laws and customs which became The Great Law of Peace and the political and cultural constitution for the Iroquois Confederacy; it later served to influence the creating of The Constitution of the US.  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Peacemaker

3.    [xxv]Tacumuah (Miami Tribe - 1720-1790) “Equal rights in the 1700s” - Female Chief of Miami Tribe and Business Owner (Trading Post); married French nobleman; A. de la Richerville  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tacumwah

4.    [xxvi]Squanto – (Patuxet - 1580-1622) “Act of Goodwill” -Recognized as the first Native or Indian American to assist colonists in the New World or Americas; also an interpreter and guide. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squanto

5.    [xxvii]Thocmentony or Sarah Winnemucca (Paiute – 1844-1891) “Putting it in Print” -First Native American woman to obtain a copyright and publish her book in English; she was involved in politics, an activist and educator.  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarah_Winnemucca

6.    [xxviii]Moses J. “Chief” Yellow Horse  - (Pawnee - 1898-1964) - “Playing in the major leagues” First Native American to play in the major leagues; he played for the Pittsburgh Pirates and later featured in Gould’s Dick Tracy comic strip.  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Yellow_Horse

7.    [xxix] Sacajawea – (Lemhi Shoshone -1788 –death uncertain) - “Follow me”- Interpreter and Guide who accompanied her husband on the Lewis and Clark Expedition; she kept them all alive and traveled with an infant son. A US dollar coin with a Shoshone woman’s image honors Sacajawea. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacagawea 

8.     [xxx]Code Talkers - “Languages that saved the war” - In World Wars I and II, Native Americans used their Native or Indian languages during the war and devised codes that were not deciphered or broken by the enemy, thus, their efforts assisted, if not saved the war. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_talker

9.    [xxxi]Mary Edmonia Lewis – (Ojibwe -1844 -1907) – “taking art to a new height” - First Native American and African American woman to gain fame and recognition as a sculptor nationally and internationally. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Edmonia_Lewis

 10.  [xxxii]Marie TallChief – (named Wa-Xthe- Thomba – Osage; 1925 - ) - “Stately and with Grace”- she dances; Native American Marie Tall Chief is a famed Ballerina; founded Chicago City Ballet and is an artistic advisor. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Tallchief

 11.  [xxxiii]Some Native American descendants who have devoted their lives to music and/or the screen: “Talents on screen” - Will Rogers (Cherokee); Jay Silverheels (Mohawk) – role of Tonto in the Lone Ranger; Della Reese (Cherokee); Loretta Lynn (Cherokee); Elvis Presley (Cherokee); and Crystal Gayle (Cherokee). Look up each by name at http://www.Wikipedia.com.

 12.  [xxxiv]Vine Deloria, Jr.  (American Indian- 1933 – 2005) – “Degreed and Degrees” obtained degrees in many fields; he was an Author; Lawyer, Theologian, Historian and Activist. One of his most famous works was the 1969 book, “Custer Died for Your Sins: An Indian Manifesto.”  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vine_Deloria,_Jr.

 13.  Jay Chris Elliot (Osage-Cherokee) – “Did someone refer to us as ignorant” - NASA Scientist and Physicist; received the President Medal of Freedom Award (Note: If interested, please look up by name; the link placed here automatically changes to one not associated with the name).

14.    [xxxv]Suzan Shown Harjo - (Cheyenne and Muscogee - 1945 - ) - “Give it back” - Administrator; President and Director of Morning Star Institute- she fights for the rights of Native or Indian Americans; develops federal laws and assists Native Americans with reclaiming that which belongs to them. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suzan_Shown_Harjo

15.  [xxxvi]John Echohawk (Pawnee) – “Echoes from the mountains to the courtrooms” First Native American to graduate a special law program at the University of New Mexico for Native Americans and uses his skills and law degree to assist Native Americans and their rights. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_EchoHawk

16.  [xxxvii]Doris Seale -  (Santee Dakota and Cree) “will people ever learn” - Author who writes and educates others on presenting Native Americans with positive messages and the preventing of stereotyping of Native American children. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doris_Seale

17.  [xxxviii]Private Minnie Spotted-Wolf – (Blackfoot- 1923- 1988) - “Attention!” - First Native American woman to enlist and serve in the US Marine Corps Women Reserve (1943) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnie_Spotted-Wolf

18.  [xxxix]Harvey Pratt – (Cheyenne and Arapaho – 1941- ) – “High Profile Sketch Artist” -American Forensic and Native American Artist; he has worked and been instrumental in solving many high profile cases; he invented a new technique in the field, was in law enforcement for over 40 years and has held a number of prestigious positions. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvey_Pratt

19.  [xl]SPC Lori Ann Piestewa – (Hopi – 1979-2003) – “Sacrificed Life for Country” - she was the “First Native American woman to die in combat while serving with the US Military and the First woman in the US armed forces killed in the 2003 US invasion of Iraq” (Wikipedia.Piestewa). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lori_Piestewa

20.  Mrs. Patricia Ann (Pat) Denson- “Stout Heart” (Cherokee – 1953-2010) – Wife, Woman, Mother, Parent – Representative of millions of women who have and continue to quietly and unobtrusively care for their homes and families.

20 Things you may not have known about Native or Indian Americans and/or their cultures prior to this Tribute

1. [xli]Turtle Island- name which Native or Indian Americans first called America http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turtle_Island_(North_America and (Professor Brent Cox)
2. [xlii]Cherokee Phoenix (February 1828) - the first printed newspaper by Native Americans; it was printed in both Cherokee and English. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherokee_Phoenix
3.  [xliii]Native American women bought AA male slaves- freed and married them.  Concerted efforts and clause within certain laws served to and kept Native Americans and African Americans apart by having fostered mistrust among Native Americans against African Americans. Some Caucasians feared the uniting of the two races and precipitation of war against Euro-Americans. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States#Native_American_and_African_relations  (note if the link does not work, type in Native Americans in the United States at Wikipedia and scroll down to the sub-heading: Native American and African Relations)
4.  [xliv]The month of “…October was the New Year and Harvest month and likely Thanksgiving…” for Native or Indian Americans (Professor Brent Cox).
5. [xlv]Black Seminole Leader- Leader John Horse (1812- 1882) led black Seminole Indians from Florida to a western Indian reservation and some into Mexico (slavery abolished); he was also a scout for the United States government.  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Horse
6.  [xlvi]United States Postal Service Great American Series - features postage stamps for each of the following Native or Indian Americans: Red Cloud, Crazy Horse, Sitting Bull and Sequoyah.  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Americans_series 
7.  [xlvii]Awards for Code Talkers  (Native American Military Servicemen from various Tribes) – In 1982, Code Talkers were given a certificate of Recognition by US President, Ronald Reagan and August 14^th, declared Navajo Code Talkers Day. The 2007 HR Bill 4544 recognized all Code Talkers - a gold medal was awarded to the tribe and a silver medal to each code talker.  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_talker  (Note: Comanche Code Talkers were  awarded in 1989, the Chevalier of the National Order of Merit by the French Government)
8. [xlviii]First Native American Vice-President – Charles Curtis (Kaw, Osage and Pottawatomie - 1860 -1936) – 31^st Vice-President of the United States from 1929 – 1933.  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Curtis
9.  [xlix]First Native American Female Physician – Dr. Susan La Flesche Picotte (Omaha-1865 – 1915); she also founded a hospital (the first private hospital on a reservation).  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susan_La_Flesche_Picotte 
10.  [l]First Native American Male Physician (Santee Sioux 1858-1939) – name “Hakadah” at birth and later Charles Eastman; he was a writer, activist for Indian rights,“founded 32 Native American chapters of the YMCA” and involved with the founding of the Boy Scouts in America.  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Eastman
11.  [li]Hampton University (Virginia) - originally named, Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute, opened in 1868 for free African Americans and was the first college to accept Native Americans (1878);  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hampton_Institute
12. [lii]US States’ Names – 24 states have Native American Names or names derived from its languages; one is named after a President (clue – the 1^st) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_name_etymologies
13.  [liii]National Museum of the American Indian has 3 locations (DC; NY and MD) which house Native American “culture, history and art” and is part of the Smithsonian Institution.  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_the_American_Indian
14.  Some Native or Indian Americans stood before European Royalty as Chiefs, Leaders and Emissaries of their Native or Indian American Nations and tribe
15.  [liv]Tecumseh (Shawnee 1768- 1813) Shawnee Leader has had 4 US Navy ships name after him.  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tecumseh 
16.  [lv]Over 1,200 pieces of Native and Indian American artifacts, artwork and photographs were collected by and for private art collector, George Gustav Heye who also created the National Museum of the American Indian to hold his collection. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gustav_Heye
17. [lvi]The US $5.00 Silver Certificate in 1899 featured an American Indian http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States  (scroll approximately half-way down right side of page for picture)
18. Some Indian tribe members felt so strongly tied to their tribes that if/when forced to leave, some chose death over being excluded or ousted from the tribe.
19. [lvii]Eagle Feather Law- only those who can certify they are of native American ancestry and of a federal recognized tribe can obtain eagle feathers for religious or spirituality purposes; once received they cannot be given to non-Natives (CFR Title 50 Part 22).  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States
20. [lviii]Some tribes have turned down government compensation settlements for lands earlier removed from Native or Indian Americans’ ownership. The Lakota Sioux turned down a court award of 122 million dollars in 1980. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakota_people

In closing, Native or Indian Americans lived off and in harmony with the land and gave back to the earth. Of different cultures and customs; they lived, worked, played, loved and died as other people or cultures. They placed the highest value on family- old and young and community. They worked together and reaped the benefits as a unit, group or community. Members of the tribe worked and provided all needs for its community and the community was the Tribe. They had a most democratic form of government and children’s education took place in classrooms without walls.

There have and continue to be many monuments and memorials built in Native Americans’ honor, but had there been none, Native Americans and their heritage would be remembered because they are as much a part of the land which they rode; ran, walked, sat and slept upon as the land is a part of history. Native or Indian Americans, thank you for your care of the land; for having sustained and safeguarded the earth and its resources and all other contributions to society and the world at large. It has been an honor to compile and write this Tribute to you.

I will end with words Professor Brent Cox provided to me shortly after we began correspondence; they were/are: [lix]“go sit in a three feet circle for hours and let Earth teach you. Go sit at a fire and let Earth speak to you. Be aware of all that is around you. Take a walk and pay attention to the animals… they will teach you. Watch the stars and see the majesty of it all” (Professor Brent Cox). 

      
                                                         Photo #3

 For those who have read each week’s Tribute, thank you for your time and for having joined me here each week.

For making this entire Tribute to Native Americans - Nations comprised of a Rich Heritage and Culture possible, the author of this blog, Mrs. Dorothy Barron wishes to thank the following: Wikipedia; U. S. History Images, Access Genealogy and Professor Brent Cox, who is considered an expert on Native American culture and Spirituality He is also a descendent of the Catawba and Cherokee Nations (additional information below). Some additional Resources have been added and listed below as well.

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[i] Quote. Barron, Mrs. Dorothy. Tribute to Native Americans- Nations comprised of a Rich Heritage and Culture Pt. 4. November 2011.

[ii] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States#Self-determination

[iii] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States#Self-determination

[iv] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_Indian_reservations

[v] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States#Self-determination

[vi] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States#Self-determination

[vii] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wounded_Knee_incident

[viii] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States#Self-determination

[ix] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicine_Lodge_Treaty

[x] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Law_of_Peace

[xi] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiquities_Act

[xii] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Reorganization_Act

[xiii] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968

[xiv] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_American_self-determination

[xv] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Child_Welfare_Act

[xvi] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Indian_Religious_Freedom_Act

[xvii] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_the_American_Indian

[xviii] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_American_Languages_Act_of_1990

[xix] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_American_Graves_Protection_and_Repatriation_Act

[xx] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990_Indian_Arts_And_Crafts_Act

[xxi] http://www.hhs.gov/intergovernmental/tribal/executiveorders.html

[xxii] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States#Self-determination

[xxiii] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Native_American_women_of_the_United_States.   http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lozen and http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dahteste

[xxiv] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Peacemaker

[xxv] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tacumwah

[xxvi] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squanto

[xxvii] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarah_Winnemucca

[xxviii] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Yellow_Horse

[xxix] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacagawea

[xxx] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_talker

[xxxi] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Edmonia_Lewis

[xxxii] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Tallchief

[xxxiii] http://www.Wikipedia.com

[xxxiv] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vine_Deloria,_Jr.

[xxxv] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suzan_Shown_Harjo

[xxxvi] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_EchoHawk

[xxxvii] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doris_Seale

[xxxviii] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnie_Spotted-Wolf

[xxxix] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvey_Pratt

[xl] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lori_Piestewa

[xli] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turtle_Island_(North_America. Professor Brent Cox. Considered Expert on Native American culture and Spirituality. Descendant of the Catawba and Cherokee Nations.

[xlii] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherokee_Phoenix

[xliii]http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States#Native_American_and_African_relations 

[xliv] Professor Brent Cox. Considered Expert on Native American culture and Spirituality. Descendant of the Catawba and Cherokee Nations.

[xlv] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Horse

[xlvi] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Americans_series

[xlvii] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_talker

[xlviii] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Curtis

[xlix] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susan_La_Flesche_Picotte

[l] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Eastman

[li] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hampton_Institute

[lii] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_name_etymologies

[liii] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_the_American_Indian

[liv] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tecumseh

[lv] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gustav_Heye

[lvi] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States

[lvii] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States

[lviii] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakota_people

[lix] Professor Brent Cox. Considered Expert on Native American culture and Spirituality. Descendant of the Catawba and Cherokee Nations.

Photos 1-6. U. S. History Images. Native Americans. Native American Tribes. Native American Cultures. Hatzigeorgiou, Karen J. U.S. History Images. 2011. Online. Internet. <http://ushistoryimages.com>. October- November 2011.

 Resources:

Indian Country Today Media Network offers national news, information and happenings about and that are foremost relevant and important to Native Americans and indigenous people. http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com .

Kid Info is a comprehensive educational website for K-12 (on various subject categories) with a host of resource information for kids,Teachers and Parents.  http://www.Kidinfo.com  

Native Village provides a deeper look into different cultures of Americas' First and indigenous people and offers resources, as well as youth and education news. www.nativevillage.org  

Brent Cox, who serves as West Tennessee Commissioner- Tennessee Historical Commission - Native American representative; Instructor at the University of Tennessee at Martin with expertise in Native American History and Tennessee History. He is Organizer of Native American Day of the annual Civil Rights Conference at UTM. He is considered an expert on Native American culture and Spirituality and as mentioned above, a descendant of the Catawba and Cherokee nations.

Official Website of the Eastern Band Cherokee Nation- North Carolina

               http://www.cherokee-nc.com/index.php        

               History and Culture Page:  http://www.cherokee-nc.com/index.php?page=57

Access Genealogy (one of the most comprehensive sites about Native or Indian Americans) http://www.accessgenealogy.com    

The following Authors and/or their Works were recommended by Professor Cox:

Book- Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American Textbook Got Wrong by Author, James Loewen

Book: Indian Givers: How the Native Americans Transformed the World by Jack Weatherford. Broadway Books. 2010.

Book: Native Roots: How the Indians Enriched America by Jack Weatherford. Ballantine Books. 1992.

Book- God is Red by Vine Deloria, Jr.

Novel: Fool’s Crow by James Welch. Viking Press. 1986.

Book: HEART OF THE EAGLE: DRAGGING CANOE AND THE EMERGENCE OF THE CHICKAMAUGA CONFEDERACY. Brent Cox. Trailblazers Publishers LLC.1999. References of Professor Brent Cox’s works can be found in Colin Calloway's books and numerous others. 

Disclaimer: Author of the Tribute to Native Americans-Nations rich in Heritage and Culture, Mrs. Dorothy Barron, makes no claim to the validity or accuracy of information provided or presented here. She has not endorsed or received endorsements financially or otherwise; this four (4) Part series has been written as a Tribute to Native or Indian Americans.

 From me to you,

Mrs. Dorothy Barron, Author

“Slinging Stones… Blog” by Mrs. Dorothy Barron:

http://www.dorothybarron.com  or

http://mrsdbarron.typepad.com/slingingstones

Parents Taking Charge in Education Blog: http://mrsdbarron.blogspot.com

Twitter: Follow Mrs. Barron at http://twitter.com/mrsdbarron

 

 

November’s Tribute to Native Americans - Nations comprised of a Rich Heritage and Culture Pt. 3 compiled and written by Mrs. Dorothy Barron

                                November’s Tribute to Native Americans

Nations comprised of a Rich Heritage and Culture Pt. 3 – compiled and written by Mrs. Dorothy Barron

[1]“Take away the culture of any people and you destroy their identity and inner being” Mrs. Dorothy Barron

 

                     

                                                    Photo #1 Viking Ships 

Assimilation began for many Native or Indian American cultures with the arrival of explorers in the New World or what would eventually become known as the Americas or America. With the explorers came wonders that were unknown and/or never seen by or within Native or Indian American cultures. One can imagine each country’s explorer(s) having offered an array of choice items from their own cultures with which to entice and/or trade with Native Americans.

Not far behind the explorers were governments; their emissaries, and missionaries. We should also note that the New Land at some point became the dumping ground for convicts or those labeled as convicts from other countries. Land for monarchs of other countries were carved out, claimed and established. Some withdrew and others eventually sold their claims to the United States government. Missionaries at the outset were killed upon having set foot in the New Land or upon introduction of Religion to Native or Indian Americans; they eventually and gradually became a fixture on the American landscape. As early as [2]“1514, Franciscans began missionary work in California” or out west in the area which was later to become California. (Wikipedia. Timeline of Christian Missions.)   

Those who arrived, settled and remained on American soil came to be termed, colonists and settlers. After America was declared a sovereign state or country and independent of Great Britain, (some) American Anglo-Saxon leaders turned their attention to those who had long resided on/in this land and were its rightful owners. On today, in Part 3 of November’s Tribute to Native Americans - Nations comprised of a Rich Heritage and Culture, we look at reformation, assimilation and/or extermination of Native or Indian Americans, their culture and customs.

                                   Reformation, Assimilation and or Extermination

 [3]"The Indians are not worth going to war over" President John Quincy Adams- 2^nd President of the United States of America (Wikipedia. Trail of Tears.)                                                         

Actually assimilation had already begun and flourishing among Native or Indian American cultures. Many from different non-Native Indian cultures intermingled and/or married those of Native or Indian American cultures. Explorers were far from home; colonists had settled in a new land; fur traders trekked great distances; freed and enslaved African Americans lost family members; populations decreased due to war and illnesses and affairs of the heart brought people of different races, nationalities and cultures together. Survival was of utmost importance during this period in history. [4]Perhaps, the most well-known instance of culture assimilation was that of Native or Indian American Leader Wahunsunacawh daughter, Pocohontas, whose name was actually, “Matowaka.” She and Englishman, John Rolfe married and her name was eventually changed to “Rebecca” Rolfe. (Wikipedia. Matowaka.) Here we interject comments from Professor Brent Cox, who provides the following,

[5]THE STORY OF POCAHONTAS IS A MYTH: MATOWAKA IS A REAL STORY OF A GIRL THAT MARRIED JOHN ROLFE WHO BROUGHT THE FIRST TOBACCO SEEDS WHICH SAVED VIRGINIA COLONY. SIR WALTER RALEIGH POPLARIZED SMOKING AND THUS VIRGINIA SURVIVED. JOHN SMITH IS NOTED FOR NAMING NEW ENGLAND AND IS IMPORTANT IN ENGLISH EXPLORATION JUST NOT IN THE STORY OF MATOWAKA, DAUGHTER OF POWHATAN (Professor Cox).

                           

                           Photo #2 Pocohontas (whose name was Matowaka)

However and for many, nothing less than domination and subjugation of Native or Indian Americans assuaged; such was introduced in a number of ways. Under the newly formed United States government, [6]George Washington, the First President of the United States of America and his secretary of War, Henry Know, began a systematic plan which included and resulted in laws, treaties and Acts under and in the name of the United States, which ordered the culturalization and assimilation of Native or Indian Americans. (Wikipedia. Native Americans in the US.) Some may have had good intentions initially, but history has provided a vivid picture and well- documented account of the results of many of those good intentions. Further below are a brief list of some Acts, Treaties and a Ghost Dance; each tells its own story and provides a vivid picture within America’s History.

Removal of Native or Indian American children from their homes and communities to assimilate into the Caucasian culture

                                                                                         

                                                                               Photo #3 “Standing Holy

                                                                Holy man & Tribal Chief, Sitting Bull’s Daughter 

 Many Native Americans wanted their children educated; but most did not want the destruction or annihilation of their culture and customs, yet such is what occurred. The removal of Native American children from their parents, homes and communities in an effort to bring about their culturalization and assimilated into Caucasian society would reach crisis point.

 Some ways which removal of Native American children took place were through the creation of orphanages established often by and at missionaries, placement into private homes of Caucasians, schools (off and on the reservation) and even through federal laws.

[7]Eleazar Wheelock's Moor's Indian Charity School in Connecticut opened its doors at some point after 1743; it was not a success. (Wikipedia. Eleazar Wheelock.)

[8]In 1879, the Carlisle Indian Industrial School for Native Americans was established by Richard Henry Pratt for the purpose of the assimilation of Native or Indian American children into Caucasian society. (Wikipedia. Carlisle Indian Industrial School.) 

Federal laws responsible for having involuntarily removed some Native or Indian American children from their homes can be traced to the Civilization Fund Act of 1819 and the law and mission(s) for which the [9]Office of Indian Affairs was created as a division in 1824 within the US War Department and later transferred in 1947 to the US Department of Interior and changed to the Bureau of Indian Affairs. (Wikipedia. Bureau of Indian Affairs.)

The Office of Indian Affairs had a large role in having Native or Indian American children removed from their Parents and home and placed in boarding schools for the purpose of civilization and assimilation into the "white" or Caucasian society. There were many accounts of child abuse having taken place in these settings.

[10]The Civilization Fund Act of 1819, entailed Congress having set aside federal funding to fund Native or Indian boarding schools and pay those who took on the job of civilizing and assimilating Native or Indian Americans into Caucasian society. (The Civilization Fund Act of 1819) 

Destruction or Loss of Native Americans’ Major Resources

 

• A chief food resource for many Native or Indian Americans was the bison or buffalo of which Native or Indian Americans depended.  Buffalo slaughter parties were held, courtesy of those who had invested interests in having Native or Indian Americans relocated. Developers and the development of railroads greatly and adversely affected Native or Indian Americans.
• Loss of their Land – their land was their livelihood; their enforced push westward created and resulted in many problems- untenable land, homelessness and intrusion onto lands occupied by other Native or Indian American tribes, which often caused conflict and wars between Indian Nations and tribes.

                                                  

                                             Photo #4   Lamentations!

 

Forced Relocation of Native or Indian Americans onto Reservations

 

As one tribe after another was forced and led onto reservations that were established throughout various geographical areas of the country (mainly westward), they found and were introduced to another type persecution. Reservations were under the supervision of the Office of Indian of Indian Affairs or Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA).

[11]Agents of the Office of Indian Affairs and others had oversight of and provided practically all services to Native or Indian Americans. Flagrant corruption within the agency and their having mishandled services, allotments and appropriations to Native Americans resulted in suffering, starvation, egregious abuses to and revolts by Native Americans. A Commission was established and results in a study which led to some major changes, but after far too many Native Americans had suffered or died as a consequence of the actions of these agents and others. (Wikipedia. Dakota War. 1862.)    

 

Extermination, if the above did not accomplish the goal(s).

 

The extermination of Native or Indian Americans occurred in many forms- 1. Native or Indian Americans were deliberately exposed to diseases and alcohol; 2. Raids (various non-Native Americans, military and some Native or Indian Americans were sent in to wipe out entire Native or Indian American villages); 3. Forced relocation for thousands of miles and at times during winter months (the 800 mile march ‘on foot’ of the Cherokee in Trail of Tears is the most often accounted; it was not the only forced march that resulted in a Trail of Tears among Native or Indian Americans) to reservations. 4. Conditions upon and after arrival at reservations.

Let us now look briefly at 9 (nine) Acts, Treaties and a Ghost Dance and allow each to tells its own story. 

                                                

                                 Photo #5 North American Treaty with 5 Nations

Acts, Treaties and a Ghost Dance

    1. [12]Indian Removal Act (1830) –   You saved my life; sorry the favor cannot be returned! - was signed by President Andrew Jackson (who was from Tennessee), the act’s name also stated its purpose. It provided the means under law for forced relocation of Native and Indian Americans, westward. The act's strongest proponent was the state of Georgia; although, many did not approve or approve of the Act. The act initially and greatly affected Nations and tribes in the South, especially the 5 Civilized Tribes which some in the nation had proudly held up as examples of Native or Indian America reform and assimilation. It signaled a dark period in history for both the Nation and this nation's Native and American Indian Nations and tribes. It should be noted that unlawful schemes were used to procure Native and Indian Americans' signatures on treaties. Such occurred in the form of having gotten a few signatures, but not a consensus; incorrect signatures- some of which contained children's; signatures of inebriated individuals and/or representatives of the US government having promised that which they did not deliver. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act

    2. [13]The Indian Appropriations Act- Wards of the US government! - consisted of a number of Acts from 1851through 1889. The Act of 1851 ensured that Native and Indian American tribes were relocated on reservations. The 1871 Act removed Tribes sovereignty or status as independent nations and ended contract by Treaty between the US government and Native American Tribes. The 1885 Act essentially removed unoccupied (key here - definition of unoccupied) lands which Native or Indian Americans owned from their possession and the Act of 1889, which was signed into law by President Grover Cleveland made those "unoccupied" lands available to settlers. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Appropriations_Act

    3. [14]1868 Laramie Treaty – Promises, Promises! - as stated last week, this agreement between the United States and several Native or Indian American Nations was signed with the government’s agreement that  Powder Hills Country inclusive of the Black Hills [15]"…would be closed to all whites," among other concessions (Wikipedia. 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie.). Interwoven within the treaty was a condition that they become "civilized." The Laramie Treaty eroded over time because the United States did not honor the treaty; they did not prevent non-Native or Indian Americans from trespassing on Native or Indian Americans' territories. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Fort_Laramie_(1868). When gold was discovered, the United States military on the Order of President Grant withdrew its protection from the territory surrounding the Black Hills of which Native and Indian Americans’ owned and resided; [16]“…the army halted its eviction of trespassers” (Wikipedia. Great Sioux War. 1876.). The United States government offered to purchase the land and when the offer was declined by those who held the rights to the land, the military after having declared them hostile used military force to remove Native and Indian Americans from the Black Hills.  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Sioux_War_of_1876#Launching_the_war

    4. [17]1778 Treaty of Fort Pitt - Jumping ship and fighting with the enemy! - Two years after the signing of the Declaration of Independence, the first written treaty between Delaware Native or Indian Americans and the United States Government. It was not a purchase treaty for land or relocation of Native or Indian Americans, but one of rights of passage (through their lands) granted to the United States by the Lanape Delaware Indians. Over a period of time, the relationship between the two eroded; the government failed to uphold the treaty and the Delaware Indians then fought on the side of the British against the colonists. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Fort_Pitt

     5. [18]1790 Indian Trade and Intercourse Act; also the NonIntercourse Act; Indian Intercourse Act or Indian Nonintercourse Act – Which is it! - No land sales between Indians and non-Indians could take place unless approved by the federal government (inclusive of individuals and states). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Trade_and_Intercourse_Act

     6. [19]The Dawes Act 1887 - Divide, Conquer and Destroy! - The Dawes Act took away both the Native American and Indian Tribes’ communal rights and tribal sovereignty. The law removed communal property and replaced it with individual allotments of property; excessive property became that of the government which was provided to settlers and others with invested interests. This accounted in part to [20] “Land owned by Indians [having been] decreased from 138 million acres (560,000 km²) in 1887 to 48 million acres (190,000 km²) in 1934” (Wikipedia. Dawes Act). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dawes_Act

     7. [21]1889 Ghost Dance – A Dance that could get one killed! – Suppression, repression and extermination of all things Indian. Was the Ghost Dance a ritual, dance, religious or political movement? - It consisted of a dance, ritual and religious movement of which, many non-Native or Indian Americans feared was a political movement by Native Americans to form an insurrection. The individual credited with having a vision which created the Ghost Dance was Wovoka or Jack Wilson. He was a spiritual leader and prophet who prophesized love, peace and harmony among all mankind; performance of the Ghost Dance done properly, would [22]“…remove all evil in the world… leaving a renewed earth filled with food, love and faith” (Wikipedia. Ghost Dance.). As the religious  movement spread, out of fear and continued repression of Native or Indian Americans’ rights to their cultures, customs and traditions, the military was sent onto a reservation where the dance was being performed; they intervened and prevented what some Caucasians perceived to have been an uprisings and resistance. The military’s actions resulted in arrests, isolation and deaths of many, inclusive of those who were thought to have been connected or involved. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost_Dance

     8. [23]In 1898, the Act for Protection for the People of Indian Territory or Curtis Act- This is not what I wrote! - was introduced by United States Representative Charles Curtis, who was of Native American and French descent. The Act later named after him and according to him resembled little of what he had originally proposed;  the Act provided [24]“…the allotment process of lands of the Five Civilized Tribes…” who had initially been “…exempt from the 1887…Dawes Act.” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curtis_Act_of_1898

    9. [25]1906 Five Civilized Tribes Act - the “4 Cs and S” still = Relocation! - (Chickasaw, Cherokee, Choctaw, Creek and Seminole Tribes) readily adapted, adopted and assimilated the customs of both Europeans and the colonists; they were touted by some as “model civilized tribes” (of the South and Southeast) and allegedly got along well with non-Native or Indian Americans. Regardless of how adaptable, almost all were relegated to the reservation after The Echota Treaty was signed, and even after their Leaders protested that the Treaty was signed without proper signature(s), consensus and after the US Supreme Court ruled in their favor. One result of the Echota Treaty was the relocation of the Cherokee and their famed, “Trail of Tears.” Trek. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Civilized_Tribes. A good number of historians and scholars often quote Alexis deTocqueville; a Frenchman who traveled to and throughout the United States and wrote of his experience. It appears Tocqueville witnessed and wrote of the experience of the removal of the Choctaw Nation and had the following to say, [26]“We … watch the expulsion… of one of the most celebrated and ancient American people (A. de Tocqueville).  

    10. [27]1924 The Indian Citizens or Snyder Act – We had full citizenship! - Signed by President Calvin Coolidge, this Act gave all Native or Indian Americans full US citizenship. The 14th Amendment did not bestow citizenship by US law upon Native or Indian Americans(although, there were some exceptions); they were excluded on the basis of their sovereignty status - they had their own established governments and laws autonomous of the United States government. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Citizenship_Act_of_1924

       Excerpts of the Effects of Treaties on Native or Indian Americans:

 

Three excerpts have been included which provide a view of the effect of government treaties prior to and upon having been established with Native or Indian Americans; they are as following:

[28]Between Jan and Feb of 1858, Texas Governor Runnel's orders to Ford; "... allow no interference from any source.”

"Ford led his men across the Red River, into the Indian Territory, violating federal laws and numerous treaties, but stating later that his job was to “find and fight Indians, not to learn geography.” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Jacket

                                            Between 1825 and 1826

[29]"The Creek National Council, led by Opothle Yohola, protested to the United States that the Treaty of Indian Springs was fraudulent. President John Quincy Adams was sympathetic, and eventually the treaty was nullified in a new agreement, the  Treaty of Washington (1826); at first, President Adams attempted to intervene with federal troops, but Troup called out the militia, and Adams, fearful of a civil war, conceded. As he explained to his intimates, "The Indians are not worth going to war over.” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trail_of_Tears

                                                    Our last excerpt;

[30]“Red Cloud continued fighting for his people, even after being forced onto the reservation. In 1889 he opposed a treaty to sell more of the Sioux land. His steadfastness and that of Sitting Bull led government agents to obtain the necessary signatures for approval through subterfuge, such as obtaining the signatures of children…” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Cloud#His_last_days

The Indian Peace Commission was created by Congress on July 20, 1867 to “negotiate peace” with certain tribes; the commission met on Aug. 6, 1867 and on January 7, 1868, noted in its findings[31]"causes of the Indian Wars including: numerous social and legal injustices to Indians, repeated violations of numerous treaties, acts of corruption by many of the local agents, and culpability of Congress in failing to fulfill certain legal obligations. The report asserts that the Indian Wars were completely preventable had the United States government and its representatives acted with legal and moral honesty in dealing with the Indians" (Wikipedia. Medicine Lodge Treaty).

This would not be the last study or similar findings.

Some pages or “Talking Leaves” from History have spoken on today. The most important lesson gleaned is that in spite of egregious injuries to these great Native or Indian Americans and their land, Native or Indian Americans persevered.  I close with the following question; how different would the United States of America be on today had men and women from different cultures and customs utilized their unique talents, skills and abilities and worked together as opposed to the destruction of each other? Join me on next week for the conclusion of my Tribute to Native Americans- Nations comprised of a Rich Heritage and Culture. 

        

                                          Photo #6 Native American Pattern     

For making this Tribute to Native Americans Pt. 3, possible, the author of this blog, Mrs. Dorothy Barron wishes to thank the following: Wikipedia; U. S. History Images and Professor Brent Cox, who is considered an expert on Native American culture and Spirituality He is also a descendent of the Catawba and Cherokee Nations (additional information below). Some additional Resources have been added and listed below as well.

---

[1] Quote. Barron, Mrs. Dorothy. Tribute to Native Americans- Nations comprised of a Rich Heritage and Culture Pt. 3. November 2011.

[2] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Christian_missions

[3] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trail_of_Tears

[4] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matowaka

[5] Professor Brent Cox. Considered Expert on Native American culture and Spirituality. Descendant of the Catawba and Cherokee Nations.

[6] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States#Colonials_revolt

[7] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleazar_Wheelock

[8] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlisle_Indian_Industrial_School#Carlisle_Indian_Industrial_School

[9] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureau_of_Indian_Affairs

[10] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Civilization_Fund_Act_of_1819

[11] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dakota_War_of_1862#Background

[12] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act

[13] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Appropriations_Act

[14] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Fort_Laramie_(1868).

[15] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Fort_Laramie_(1868

[16] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Sioux_War_of_1876#Launching_the_war

[17] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Fort_Pitt

[18] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Trade_and_Intercourse_Act

[19] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dawes_Act

[20]  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dawes_Act

[21] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost_Dance

[22] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost_Dance

[23] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curtis_Act_of_1898

[24] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curtis_Act_of_1898

[25] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Civilized_Tribes

[26] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trail_of_Tears#Choctaw_voluntary_removal

[27] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Citizenship_Act_of_1924

[28] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Jacket

[29]http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trail_of_Tears

[30] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Cloud#His_last_days

27 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicine_Lodge_Treaty

Photos 1-6. U. S. History Images. Native Americans. Native American Tribes. Native American Cultures. Hatzigeorgiou, Karen J. U.S. History Images. 2011. Online. Internet. <http://ushistoryimages.com>. October- November 2011.

Resources and Additional Resource Information:

US Department of Interior (created in 1849) - has jurisdiction over our "natural and cultural resources" with the oversight of nine different departments inclusive of the Bureau of Indian Affairs. http://www.doi.gov/index.cfm 

Dawes Act: Reservation: The Indian Problem. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dawes_Act#The_.E2.80.9CIndian_Problem.E2.80.9D

Americanization of Native Americans

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americanization_of_Native_Americans

Americanization of Native Americans- Native American Education and Boarding Schools

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americanization_of_Native_Americans#Native_American_education_and_boarding_schools

United States Territorial Acquisitions

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_territorial_acquisitions

List of United States Treaties (Further down on page- list of those between US Government and Native American Governments)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_treaties 

History of Immigration to the United States

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_US_immigration

Brent Cox, who serves as West Tennessee Commissioner- Tennessee Historical Commission - Native American representative; Instructor at the University of Tennessee at Martin with expertise in Native American History and Tennessee History. He is Organizer of Native American Day of the annual Civil Rights Conference at UTM. He is considered an expert on Native American culture and Spirituality and as mentioned above, a descendant of the Catawba and Cherokee nations. 

 Official Website of the Eastern Band Cherokee Nation- North Carolina

               http://www.cherokee-nc.com/index.php        

               History and Culture Page:  http://www.cherokee-nc.com/index.php?page=57

The following Authors and/or their Works were recommended by Professor Cox:

Book- Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American Textbook Got Wrong by Author, James Loewen

Book: Indian Givers: How the Native Americans Transformed the World by Jack Weatherford. Broadway Books. 2010.

Book: Native Roots: How the Indians Enriched America by Jack Weatherford. Ballantine Books. 1992.

Book- God is Red by Vine Deloria, Jr. 

Novel: Fool’s Crow by James Welch. Viking Press. 1986.

Book: HEART OF THE EAGLE: DRAGGING CANOE AND THE EMERGENCE OF THE CHICKAMAUGA CONFEDERACY. Brent Cox. Trailblazers Publishers LLC.1999. References of Professor Brent Cox’s works can be found in Colin Calloway's books and numerous others.

Disclaimer: Author of the Tribute to Native Americans-Nations rich in Heritage and Culture, Mrs. Dorothy Barron, makes no claim to the validity or accuracy of information provided or presented here. She has not endorsed or received endorsements financially or otherwise; this four (4) Part series has been written as a Tribute to Native or Indian Americans.

From me to you,

Mrs. Dorothy Barron, Author

“Slinging Stones… Blog” by Mrs. Dorothy Barron:

http://www.dorothybarron.com  or

http://mrsdbarron.typepad.com/slingingstones

Parents Taking Charge in Education Blog: http://mrsdbarron.blogspot.com

Twitter: Follow Mrs. Barron at http://twitter.com/mrsdbarron

 

November’s Tribute to Native Americans - Nations comprised of a Rich Heritage and Culture Pt. 2 compiled and written by Mrs. Dorothy Barron

                                November’s Tribute to Native Americans

Nations comprised of a Rich Heritage and Culture Pt. 2 compiled and written by Mrs. Dorothy Barron

 [1]"That hand is not the color of yours, but if I prick it, the blood will flow, and I shall feel pain," said Standing Bear. "The blood is of the same color as yours. God made me, and I am a man” (Chief Standing Bear).

                 
                                                                                             
Photo #1 Red Cloud                         Photo #2 Tecumseh             Photo #3Metacomet 

As we continue on today with Part 2 of our November Tribute to Native Americans- Nations comprised of a Rich Heritage and Culture, we want to list some Native or American Indian Leaders and Chiefs- those well-known and perhaps, not as well-known and view them as:   

Chiefs, Leaders, Warriors, Protectors, Strategists, Advisors and more!

Images of Native or Indian Americans from television and other sources have often given us fallacious and mendacious views and/or perceptions of Native or Indian American Chiefs and Warriors.  Professor Brent Cox, who has offered his knowledge and insight and is considered an expert on Native American culture and Spirituality, as well as a descendent of the Catawba and Cherokee Nations, has advised caution in the use of the word, “Chief” as title. His suggestion that [2]“Leader or holy man or woman is better” (Professor B. Cox) led to a host of questions from me especially after having done further research and discovered [3]‘“the title of "Principal Chief" was created in 1794…”’ by the Cherokee (Wikipedia). Professor Cox kindly responded to my inquiries for additional clarification with the following:

[4]“Leaders were selected by the whole nation and could lose the position by making a simple mistake. Everything was by popular consensus. If a leader urged for war, it was an individual right so if no one showed up, no war. The leader controlled meetings and protocol. The nation or tribe controlled the leader. He had no authority rather he conducted or led ceremonies. Before 1794: leading headman or great warrior or holy man….. Headman is the best. I would eliminate Chief altogether…..” (Professor Brent Cox).

Professor Cox’s advice to “eliminate Chief, altogether” is thought provoking; it leads to great research questions of how the terms, Chief and Chiefdom originated within Native and Indian American cultures and if, before 1794?  

To totally eliminate the term "Chief" within Native and Indian American cultures require a mental shift from what most have been taught. Second, Chief is a term for leadership; top ranking or position and associated with one being honorable and noble. Interaction with Professor Cox had me taking a second look at the Title I had placed initially for each of the twelve great men below; for this particular Tribute, I have listed the great Leaders and Chiefs’ Titles as they were listed during my research. Third, whether listed as Leader, Chief, Principal Chief, Warrior, Holy man, etc., these as well as many others provided guidance, leadership and the wherewithal to command a following. In the eyes of many and within this narrative, “they were and are, all Chiefs, because they were great Leaders.”

Native American males, even those destined to become Chiefs were taught at an early age to become warriors. It is important to understand that duties of a warrior entailed more than fighting; the duties of a Chief, much more.

Each Chief was ultimately responsible for his/her entire tribe. Some Leaders or Chiefs had not only to contend with their own tribes or other Native or Indian American Nations and tribes, but the British; the colonists in America; Spain; France, and the United Kingdom. Each at some point had acquired territorial rights in the New Land or America. For Native or Indian American tribes out west, continuous battles with Mexicans (Mexico) as well as encroaching settlers ensued. Negotiations involving foreign policy could be difficult and complicated, but language barriers complicated and compounded matters further for a period of time.

Many Native American Leaders and Chiefs ceded much land to non-Native Americans and attempted to live in peace, but various countries, the colonists and settlers were not appeased and strove for more land and its resources to the point of forcible relocation and/or extermination of Native or Indian Americans. As a result, bloody wars and battles ensued with most of those same Leaders and Chiefs having ridden at the head of the contingent. Waging war was a means of Native Americans protecting their lives, the land and their way of life?

Some Leaders and Chiefs had to contend with challenges of Leadership and Chiefdom usurpation from within their own tribes. Weather conditions and other factors made it necessary to plan, plant, harvest and store or suffer the consequences; they could not gallop off to the nearest market or grocery store. 

Strength in the Days Ahead

Some Leaders and Chiefs foresaw the turning point and dark days looming upon the horizon long before encroachment and the eventual destruction of their tribes’ livelihood and way of life.

      

                                    Photo #4 Early Pioneers                                              

Such occurred in the form and/or as a result of the following:

1. Diseases having decimated almost entire tribes; Native or Indian Americans were deliberately introduced to diseases in an effort to exterminate them. Ex.: Having underestimated the strength and resistance of Native American tribes to British rule, [5]British Army General, Jeffery Amherst, instructed at least one subordinate to infect Indian tribes with Smallpox. Indians of the Delaware Tribe were given blankets and a handkerchief infected with the small pox germ (Wikipedia. Siege of Fort Pitt). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Fort_Pitt
2. War among Native American Nations and tribes, as well as internal strife.
3. Destruction of major food supplies: predominantly the bison or buffalo- what many have been led to believe was the Buffalo simply ceased to exist. Massive slaughters deliberately took place, which destroyed one of the major food sources of Native Americans in an effort to starve or force them to relocate.
4. Greed for land and rich minerals of and/or under the earth caused some men to commit some of the most dastardly and reprehensible acts in history.
5. False Promises, broken treaties, forced assimilation and relocation on reservations for most Native or Indian Americans.          

                         
                                        Photo #5Plains Indian Crow Chief

              Now, our 12 Native American or Indian Leaders and Chiefs:

1. [6]Chief Metacomet (Metacom) or King Phillip 1639-1676 (War Leader and “Sachem- Paramount Chief”) - Native or Indian American Nations and tribes of the North appeared to have been more adaptable to European and colonial society and formal education than those within other geographical areas throughout America. During the 1600s, Native or Indian American Chief Metacomet [7]"...adopted the European name of Phillip and bought his clothes in Boston, Massachusetts" (Wikipedia.Metacomet). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metacomet. It appears the English gave him the name, "King" Phillip. Metacomet’s advisor was also a Native American who was an Interpreter; could read, write, speak English and was a Harvard Graduate. A number of acts and transgressions on the English's part brought about King Phillip’s War, which has been declared [8]"...the single greatest calamity to occur in seventeenth-century Puritan New England" (Wikipedia. King Phillip's War). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Philip%27s_War

2. [9]Chief Thayendanegea or Joseph Brant 1743-1807 (Mohawk Military and Political Leader; War Chief) – his family had influential connections with British officials and Indian American Sachems. Introduced to war at an early age and when older he led a band of followers (Volunteers); was made Chief of Mohawks and eventually Chief over Six Nations. He was a great "military and political leader" and was also strategic and an adept foreign policy negotiator. He sided and fought for the British against American colonists. He spoke English and at least 3-6 Six Nations Iroquoian languages. He was given the nickname- "Monster Brant" by some Americans after some of his military massacres against the American colonists. His Tribe was advanced; according to an American commander regarding the town of "Onguaga," of which Brant and other tribe members lived as having consisted of houses built with [10]"…square logs, shingles and stone chimneys, good floors, glass windows" (Wikipedia. Joseph Brant). He went to Paris and London and met with King George, III; years later, he met President George Washington and his cabinet. Later, Brant and part of the Six Nations Iroquois moved to Ontario, Canada, where he remained. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thayendanegea

3. [11]Cherokee Eastern Band Chief Yonaguska 1759-1839 (Principal Chief) - A Reformer, Man of Visions and a Visionaire! As a young boy, Yonaguska had visions, one of which according to him revealed the usurpation of Cherokee lands by settlers. This foresight helped enable him and others to remain upon Cherokee lands. His adoption of a young Caucasian boy into his tribe was fortuitous as well. Leader Yonaguska was determined to remain on Cherokee lands; he refused all offers and treaties to part with or depart from the land. The young man whom the Leader adopted when older championed the tribe's cause and secured land in his name for the Leader and some tribe members, thus having assisted in the prevention of their being forced to relocate. Another vision enabled Leader Yonaguska to become an abstainer of alcohol after having become addicted for a number of years. He formulated a pledge of abstinence of alcohol which was signed by all tribe members. By the time of his death, he had amassed much land. At the point of death, he passed the Chiefdom to his adopted son, William Holland Thomas, who was Caucasian. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yonaguska

4.  [12]Shawnee Leader Tecumseh 1768- 1813 (Shawnee Leader and Leader of Tecumseh’s Confederacy) - fought on the side of the British in the 1812 War. He was both historic and a heroic Leader; oratorical and diplomatic. He marshaled Tribes in an effort to unite and worked relentlessly to form a confederacy and Nation to prevent Native or Indian American tribes from selling off land to the US government and the encroachment of settlers who had Native American tribes moved off their lands.  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tecumseh

5.  [13]Comanche Chief Iron Jacket (Po-bish-e-qu asho) 1780/90 -1858 (Chief and Medicine Man) – who was thought by many to be invincible. Comanche and Kiowa were ruthless in having staved off encroachment and settlement on lands which they occupied; gruesome and merciless battles took place on both sides. The Governor of Texas sent the combined forces of a Texas Ranger(s), Militia and Tonkawa Indians with orders to  [14]“…follow any and all trails of hostile and suspected hostile Indians, inflict the most severe punishment, (kill them and their families, destroy their homes and food supplies) and to allow no interference from “any source” (Wikipedia. Antelope Hills Expedition). Chief Iron Jacket’s last battle in life staved off combined forces and thus enabled reinforcements to arrive and people of his and another tribe to escape.  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Jacket   

6. [15]Chiricahau Apache Chief Cochise 1805-1874 (Chief) - was fierce; he was captured once, but escaped. He fought battles with Mexico and the Spanish to prevent domination, patronization and placation; the Spanish offered inferior weapons and alcohol, but it was the Bascom Affair that set the direction for much of his life. He was falsely arrested, which resulted in bloodshed and continuous battles of which the Apaches were the victors. Mountains served as their strongholds. Chief Cochise was not defeated; he eventually signed a treaty of which his Caucasian friend was a negotiator in his surrender and agent at the reservation on which Chief Cochise lived the remainder of his days. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Cochise

7.  [16]Oglala Lakota (Sioux) Chief Red Cloud 1822-1909 – (War Leader and Head Chief) Chief Red Cloud could rally the forces! The Sioux, Cheyenne and Arapaho enjoined in battle and were victorious in a battle that came to be known by some as “Fetterman's Massacre” and others, “Battle of the Hundred Slain.” A peaceful resolution came about after Chief Red Cloud visited with the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Elys Parker (US Army General and Native American of the Iroquois Nation) and U.S. President, Ulysses Grant; such was to be the first of many meetings between Chief Red Cloud and President Grant. As a result, the 1868 Treaty of Laramie (of which Chief Red Cloud did not sign) between the tribes and US Government was signed with the government having agreed the Powder Hills Country inclusive of the Black Hills [17]"…would be closed to all whites" (Wikipedia. Treaty of Fort Laramie 1868). Caucasians cry of "there's gold in them thar hills" caused a stampede of gold prospectors, settlers and others. The government's failure to protect the rights of Native or Indian Americans and having prohibited them their rights to protect themselves, land and resources ignited old hostilities and wars! Consequent trips to Washington and meetings with President Grant resulted in Congress' offer of $25,000.00 for the land and their removal to an Indian Reservation. They declined, but were eventually forced onto a Reservation. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Red_Cloud

8. [18]Chiricahau Apache Leader Geronimo birth name- Goyallé or Goyathala 1829-1909 (Leader of Chiricahau Apache) - A daring Leader that attacked and eluded capture! Born into Bedonchohe tribe and married into the Chiricahau Tribe, Geronimo fought both Mexicans and Americans to prevent encroachment upon their lands. He was a bitter enemy of Mexicans due to their having killed members of his family. He was hunted for a long time. After having surrendered, Geronimo was shuffled to a number of different states as a prisoner of war. He was put on exhibition in fairs, carnivals and expositions. Society views Geronimo as one of the greatest warriors and Leaders of all time. He came to regret having surrendered. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geronimo

9. [19]Hunkpapa Lakota (Sioux) Chief Sitting Bull 1831-1890 (a holy man and Tribal Chief) A man of vision and premonitions! Sitting Bull was instrumental in keeping the Northern Pacific Railway from being built and the US Army and Europeans out of the Hills of South Dakota until gold was discovered.  Sitting Bull and some followers headed to and lived in Canada for a period of time. Upon their return and surrender, he was eventually sent to a reservation. Not willing to become dependent upon “whites” (Caucasians), Chief Sitting Bull became an entrepreneur- He was a paid participant in Buffalo Bill Cody’s Wild West Show and further capitalized on what was a profitable business; he charged extra for his photos and autographs. Chief Sitting Bull is best known and remembered for having defeated Lt. Col. George Custer at the Little Bighorn. According to Professor Brent Cox, [20]“Sitting bull was not at the battle of little big horn nor was he a warrior” (Professor Cox). Fear that Chief Sitting Bull would support the Ghost Dance led to his arrest while in his home on the reservation and his senseless death. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Sitting_Bull

10.  [21]Ponca Chief Standing Bear 1834-1908 (Chief) – An Appeal before the United States Supreme Court! The US Government's failure to uphold signed treaties which involved ceded land by the Poncas resulted in this Chief and his people's starvation and loss of approximately one-third of the tribe when forced from their home in Nebraska onto a reservation in Oklahoma. Arrested for having left the reservation to bury his son, promulgation of the tribe's condition led to support from others and a suit for Writ of Habeas Corpus (US ex. Rel. Standing Bear v. Crook). US District Judge, E.S. Dundy ruled that "an Indian is a person." Chief Standing Bear won the case and was freed; he toured and spoke on Indian Rights in both America and Europe. This Chief and some tribe members eventually returned to their beloved Niobrara valley in Nebraska. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Standing_Bear

11. [22]Oglala Leader Crazy Horse 1840-1877 (War Leader) - was determined to maintain their customs and culture. He had visions and succumbed to trances. He was in constant battle with Native American Nations, tribes and US soldiers. He participated in Fetterman’s Massacre or Battle of the Hundred Slain, but the following year sustained a great loss as a result of the US military having possessed faster firing rifles. Lack of provisions, he and his tribe surrendered. There are different accounts of how he died, however, death occurred after having surrendered and while in military custody. He has been remembered by followers and the general public down through the years. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Crazy_Horse

12. [23]Comanche Chief Quanah Parker 1845-1852 (Chief) – was the grandson of Leader Iron Jacket and protégé of Leader Wild Horse. Chief Parker, son of a Native American father and European mother founded the Quahadi band, which at one time among the Comanche tribe was not only the “largest, but most notorious”. When no longer able to effectively wage war due to great losses (buffalo, horses, etc.), Chief Quanah Parker led the tribe to an Indian Reservation. He exhibited leadership skills there as well. Ranchers had cattle and needed land; the reservation which housed the Kiowas and Comanches consisted of almost “one (1) million” acres of land. Chief Parker and the Ranchers formed a partnership thus having enabled the Chief to become a rancher and very wealthy man. He was included in President Theodore Roosevelt’s hunting expeditions. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quanah_Parker

Many have been led to assume that most Native American or Indian Leaders or Chiefs either died or surrendered in battle. Such is not the case; a good number were undefeated and could not be captured or held once captured. Many Leaders or Chiefs made arrangements to surrender or went to Indian reservation agencies with or without their tribes and surrendered themselves.

Even though war was inevitable, Native Americans incorporated other means to either and/or avoid war, live peaceably with those of non-Native or Indian American cultures and remain on their lands. Point #5, was a means or strategy of which few are aware.

1. Some Native American or Indian Leaders or Chiefs relocated their tribes to Canada.
2. Some Leaders or Chiefs moved their tribes high up in/on mountains and crevices and other less accessible places or locations.
3. Some Native American Leaders or Chiefs and other learned men took their fight to Washington, DC and/or the United States Supreme Court. In some cases, even when they won legal battles, often those who wanted land rightfully owned and upon which Native Americans resided devised unlawful and illegal schemes of which to divest them.
4. Still, some utilized more innovative ways, thus, having retained and remained on their lands. Some Caucasian landowners- friends, who had earlier been adopted into various tribes and/or sympathizers of the brutal and unlawful treatment of Native or Indian Americans, purchased land in their names.
5. Some Native or Indian Americans married freedmen. One fascinating story as a result of the marriage of Kofi or Cuffee Slocum and Ruth Moses was the accomplishments of one of their sons. [24]Captain Paul Cuffee or Cuffe’s (1759-1817) mother was Native American and his father, a freed African American. Paul, their son worked hard and with perseverance became a ship Captain and owner/part-owner of a number of ships and at one point, the richest African and Native American. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Cuffe

When educated, sophisticated and/or peaceful means did not work, many Native or Indian Americans armed themselves and with their battle cries went to war or continued warfare. There is no doubt that these Native American or Indian Leaders and Chiefs were men; great men. Some lived and died on their own terms. The Leaders and Chiefs listed above as well as others not mentioned here will continue to serve as inspiration throughout all ages. Join me next week for Part 3, as we continue our November’s Tribute to Native Americans- Nations comprised of a Rich Heritage and Culture compiled and written by Mrs. Dorothy Barron.

     

                         Photo #6 Leader Pontiac – Attack on Fort

For making this Tribute to Native Americans possible, the author of this blog, Mrs. Dorothy Barron wishes to thank the following: Wikipedia; Access Genealogy; U. S. History Images and Professor Brent Cox, who is considered an expert on Native American culture and Spirituality He is also a descendent of the Catawba and Cherokee Nations (additional information below). Some additional Resources have been added and listed below as well.

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[1](Upon having raised his hand), Chief Standing Bear’s closing remarks before Judge Elmer S. Dundy in Ex. Rel. Standing Bear v. Crook) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Standing_Bear

[2] Professor Brent Cox. Considered Expert on Native American culture and Spirituality. Descendant of the Catawba and Cherokee Nations.

[3] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principal_Chiefs_of_the_Cherokee

[4] Professor Brent Cox. Considered Expert on Native American culture and Spirituality. Descendant of the Catawba and Cherokee Nations.

[5] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Fort_Pitt

[6] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Philip%27s_War

[7] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metacomet

[8] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Philip%27s_War

[9] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thayendanegea

[10] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thayendanegea

[11] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yonaguska

[12] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tecumseh

[13] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Jacket

[14] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antelope_Hills_Expedition

[15] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Cochise

[16] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Red_Cloud

[17] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Fort_Laramie_(1868)

[18] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geronimo

[19] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Sitting_Bull

[20] Professor Brent Cox. Considered Expert on Native American culture and Spirituality. Descendant of the Catawba and Cherokee Nations.  

[21] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Standing_Bear

[22] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Crazy_Horse

[23] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quanah_Parker

[24] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Cuffe

Photos 1-6. U. S. History Images. Native Americans. Native American Tribes. Native American Cultures. Hatzigeorgiou, Karen J. U.S. History Images. 2011. Online. Internet. <http://ushistoryimages.com>. October- November 2011.

Resources and Resource Information:

1. Brent Cox, who serves as West Tennessee Commissioner- Tennessee Historical Commission - Native American representative; Instructor at the University of Tennessee at Martin with expertise in Native American History and Tennessee History. He is Organizer of Native American Day of the annual Civil Rights Conference at UTM. He is considered an expert on Native American culture and Spirituality and as mentioned above, a descendant of the Catawba and Cherokee nations.
2. Access Genealogy (one of the most comprehensive sites about Native or Indian Americans) http://www.accessgenealogy.com  
3.  Official Website of the Eastern Band Cherokee Nation- North Carolina 

                         http://www.cherokee-nc.com/index.php        

               History and Culture Page:  http://www.cherokee-nc.com/index.php?page=57

 The following Authors and/or their Works were recommended by Professor Cox:

Book- Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American Textbook Got Wrong by Author, James Loewen

Book: Indian Givers: How the Native Americans Transformed the World by Jack Weatherford. Broadway Books. 2010. 

Book: Native Roots: How the Indians Enriched America by Jack Weatherford. Ballantine Books. 1992.

Book- God is Red by Vine Deloria, Jr.

Novel: Fool’s Crow by James Welch. Viking Press. 1986.

Book: HEART OF THE EAGLE: DRAGGING CANOE AND THE EMERGENCE OF THE CHICKAMAUGA CONFEDERACY. Brent Cox. Trailblazers Publishers LLC.1999. References of Professor Brent Cox’s works can be found in Colin Calloway's books and numerous others.

Disclaimer: Author of the Tribute to Native Americans-Nations rich in Heritage and Culture, Mrs. Dorothy Barron, makes no claim to the validity or accuracy of information provided or presented here. She has not endorsed or received endorsements financially or otherwise; this four (4) Part series has been written as a Tribute to Native or Indian Americans.

From me to you,

Mrs. Dorothy Barron, Author

“Slinging Stones… Blog” by Mrs. Dorothy Barron:

http://www.dorothybarron.com  or

http://mrsdbarron.typepad.com/slingingstones

Parents Taking Charge in Education Blog: http://mrsdbarron.blogspot.com

Twitter: Follow Mrs. Barron at http://twitter.com/mrsdbarron

 

 

 

 

November's Tribute to Native or Indian Americans - Nations rich in Heritage and Culture Pt. 1 complied and written by Mrs. Dorothy Barron

               November’s Tribute to Native or Indian Americans

  Nations rich in Heritage and Culture Pt. 1 – compiled and written by Mrs. Dorothy Barron

[1]When asked by an anthropologist what the Indians called America before the white man came, an Indian said simply, "Ours." –Vine Deloria, Jr.

 

Photo #1 Comanche Chief                                                                                                       Quanah Parker                              Photo #2 A Plains Indian Scout

                                          
                                                                        

November is the month which America traditionally celebrates Thanksgiving. I want to take this month to thank, honor and celebrate the rich heritage, culture and contributions of Native or Indian Americans. Such will be done so over these next four weeks in blog posts at Slinging Stones…Blog by Mrs. Dorothy Barron.  It is our way of saying thank you for your – care of this land, its resources and your contributions to society.

Often, our history lessons of Native or Indian Americans have been limited to the atrocities wreaked upon them throughout history, their land having been stolen and they being cast as inferior and derogatorily termed, “savages.” Each Native American Nation has its own customs and culture; for an even richer experience, may we suggest viewing the official website of each Native American Nation of interest, if available. You will find in-depth and a wealth of information. Some resources have been listed below as well.  Professor Brent Cox, who is considered an expert on Native American culture and Spirituality, has added his knowledge about Native or Indian Americans’ customs and culture to this Tribute. He is a descendent of the Catawba and Cherokee Nations.

 Today, in Part 1 of our Tribute to Native Americans, we will look at Native or Indian Americans’ History or Past.

 Who are they and from where did Native Americans originate?

 The name itself is rather a misnomer. Native American is really an adjective; it is a description, but does not really tell us who they were. The word native can be defined as indigenous or part of the original. In other words, native, because history has recorded them as having been the first occupants of this land that came to be called America, hence - Native Americans. Native or Indian Americans are comprised of Nations, such as the Cherokee Nation, Cree Nation, Cheyenne Nation, Sioux Nation, etc., etc., with each having its own customs, cultures and comprised of tribes.

There is controversy about the origin and arrival of Native Americans here in the new land or the Americas. [2]Record has it that Native Americans originated from Eurasia via the Beringia (Bering Strait) formed 60,000-25,000 years ago with a minimum depth time for passage 12,000 years ago (Wikipedia).  Others surmised they may have crossed oceans, but deemed unsupported by some due to the massive number of Native Americans in the new land.   Professor Cox supports the theory that Native Americans arrived by boats; according to him, [3]“Native Americans came by boats skirting the coast and the oldest sites are from 44,000 yrs old to 110,000 yrs old; Beringia is only one route in one time period” (B. Cox). Many Native American Nations discount both theories; they aver they have always lived here. According to some Native Americans, their origin here was as a result of having crawled up through a hole in the ground; while others aver, they sprung up from the earth. [4] “The Hopi or Shi (She) people claimed to have crawled thru Wind Cave and the Shi are also the people of Tibet of which they are related” (B. Cox). According to Professor Cox in reference to Native Americans, [5]“most are kin to southeastern Asians and from one of 7 Haplo Groups A,B,C,D,F,P,Q and then X - Scandinavians who arrived 25000 years ago” (B. Cox)

They have been ridiculed, but having crawled up through a hole in the ground or from a wind cave is no less ridiculous than the theory of evolution –humans having originated from apes, monkeys or other animals. Their having sprung up from the earth/ground may not be as far-fetched as we think. Think for a moment about the Biblical creation of man. Did not the CREATOR [6]“…form man of the dust of the ground” (Genesis 2:7)? Perhaps, we should allow each nationality or race to tell his story. After all, that is what History is; “his story.”

 Indian Nations and Locations throughout the United States in the Past

At one point in time and before explorers arrived, total population is uncertain and often debated with estimations having ranged from [7]2.1 to 18 million (Wikipedia). [8]According to Professor Cox, “over 2000 cultures existed before Columbus came; 562 nations remain today (B. Cox).  Native American Nations existed throughout the New World; such would change drastically due to encroachment of settlers and forced relocation to reservations.

                                               Photo #3 Chippewa Indians    

 

                          
 

Native American Life in the Past

Native American Nations were independent, self-governing and autonomous. Tribes’ predominant leaders mainly consisted of a Tribal Chief, War Chief, Holy People, as well as a person chosen as the Tribe’s historian. This person was responsible for having documented the history of the Tribe and retained it through memory. The historian recounted the history to the tribe, which was passed from generation to generation by both tribe members and the historian. Nature provided Native American cultures with paints of many colors which they liberally used to decorate everything from their bodies to objects. Paints served to preserve their history in color and were used generously in celebrations, festivals and ceremonies of many and various kinds. When I initially listed Tribes’ predominant leaders, “Shaman,” as the individual who was the medicine or spiritual leader of the tribe was listed. [9]Professor Cox has stated that the correct title should be, “Holy People;” and also pointed out that “…women had much more influence than told” (B. Cox).  

Family and community were utmost important, as we will share when we list some Acts and laws. Native American names were very important. Names could be given or acquired during a “right of passage (boy to manhood) quest;” as a result of some particular characteristic - a girl who may have laughed often and the sound carried or flowed may have acquired the name, “Laughing Brook;” one’s personality; physical feature; an occurrence during or immediately after birth or something associated with a person. [10]Record has it that Oglala Lakota Chief Crazy Horse’s name could have had reference to his horse or his ancestors before him who had the same name; the name given him at birth was Cha-O-Ha (Wikipedia). One could surmise that he had gotten the name as a result of his vision-s. What was interesting was that some Native American Nations names according to Professor Cox, [11] “…were often taken from their enemies; Cherokee=Aniyunwiya Tsalagi / Sioux = Lakota, Nadewisou or Sioux came from the Ojibway” (B. Cox).

By most standards, Native Americans lived a simple lifestyle. They also fiercely protected their culture and way of life. They were great hunters, fishermen, carpenters, builders, craftsmen, farmers, trappers, agriculturists, Herbalists, Chiefs, Warriors, trackers/scouts and horse tamers and trainers. The fruits of their labor and nature provided them with a bountiful table.

Many are aware of Native American’s great skills and sophistication in the area of farming or as agriculturists; but in addition and according to Professor Cox, they were [12]“…the world’s greatest Astronomers” whose “…sophistication [was] equal if not superior to Europe” enabling them to have “build sites larger than those in Europe in 1492 and cities with over 25,000 people” (B. Cox). The fruits of their labor and nature provided them with a bountiful table.

Colors were very important and played a great role in the lives of Native Americans. Professor Cox provided the ancient colors of the Cherokee, along with what each represented and/or direction represented- [13]“East-Spiritual-Red/ North-Mental-White/ West-Physical-Blue/ South-Natural-Yellow/ Center of Circle Black for Creator-all colors make black-it represents the fire” and also pointed out that “other nations used White, Red, Yellow, Black to represent the four types of people on Earth=Brown when mixed or the color of Earth” (B. Cox).   Many have sung the Hymn, Jesus Loves the Little Children and knew the colors  represented people of the world, as did it appear Native American cultures; perhaps the basis of the song originated with them.

Are Native American Nations male dominated? Perhaps it depends on who one asks. [14]In many tribes, descendents are traced through the matrilineal (mother’s) line; the mother is also head of the household and should she and her husband separate, both house and children belong to the mother (Wikipedia).  There have been Female Indian Chiefs. The first Native American Female Chief was [15]“Awashonks” of the Sakonnet Tribe in Rhode Islands; she signed the 1671 Plymouth Agreement (Wikipedia).

  Photo #4 Sequoyah of the Cherokee Nation

Languages:  Native or Indian American cultures spoke many different languages at one time in history. The number varied so widely this author hesitates to post those numbers here. Sign language was widely utilized. Some Indian Tribes created their own language in written form. [16]Sequoyah (English Name- George Guess or Gist) of the Cherokee Nation independently invented the Cherokee Alphabet or “syllabary,” which enabled the Cherokee Nation to read and write (Wikipedia). Many became literate and proficient in the English or Caucasian language. As an effort to fully assimilate Natives Americans into Caucasian culture, Native Americans were dissuaded and even forbidden to speak their native tongues. [17]It took an Executive Order, 1990 (Public Law 101-477) to restore Native Americans’ rights to speak their own languages (Wikipedia). Some have scoffed at their languages, but those languages assisted America in winning World Wars I and II (more later).

Spirituality: Each Nation’s tribes had their own customs and rituals in this area. Native Americans were grounded, centered and oriented; they lived in harmony and balance with nature, in an ever-present state of awareness and presence of The Creator. They communed with nature and many experienced visions and dreams. They worshipped the Supreme CREATOR and acknowledged The CREATOR as being omnipotent, omnipresent and omniscient; they viewed all as being connected and part of a cycle. They paid homage to natural and spiritual elements of which pipes, sweat lodges, spiritual quests, various ceremonies, meditation and rituals were a part. Professor Cox adds, [18]“spirituality is up to the individual as is war or etc; each has freedom to believe as they choose and can be different and yet accepted” (B. Cox).  Death was/is simply a part of that cycle; with some tribes, when an individual died all their belongings ceased to exist; the deceased person’s name was never to be uttered again.

 Photo #5 Navajo Loom                             Photo #6 Native American Buffalo Robe

             

Conservationist and Preservationists: The Native Americans knew and understood the importance of preserving and conserving the earth and its natural resources. They are our greatest conservationists and preservationists and for these reasons alone have made two of, if not the greatest contributions to society at large. They were the embodiment of Natural and naturalists. Their tools, food, clothes, medicine, housing, households, housewares, and etc., all came from nature and were made from natural resources. 

Photo #7 Native American Pottery

What is most fascinating - Native Americans many uses of a single thing, for instance, the buffalo. The buffalo alone provided food, oil, housing, tools, clothing, household furnishings, decorations, jewelry, household containers, travel packs, etc., etc.                              

        
                               Photo #8 Plains Indians Hunting Buffalo

            

The more one learns of Native or Indian Americans culture and customs, one realizes that Native American Nations and tribes consisted of order and structure with systems in place. They may not have known the word, democracy, but their systems of order revealed one of having been “by, of and for” their people.

Join me next week for Part 2 of our Tribute to Native Americans- Nations rich in Heritage and Culture compiled and written by Mrs. Dorothy Barron.

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For making this Tribute to Native Americans possible, the author of this blog, Mrs. Dorothy Barron wishes to thank the following: Wikipedia; Access Genealogy; U. S. History Images and Professor Brent Cox, who is considered an expert on Native American culture and Spirituality He is also a descendent of the Catawba and Cherokee Nations (additional information on Professor Cox is below). Some additional Resources have been added and listed below as well.

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[1]http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vine_Deloria,_Jr.#cite_note-mnsu-3 

[2] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States

[3] Professor Brent Cox. Considered an Expert on Native American culture and Spirituality. Descendant of the Catawba and Cherokee Nations.

[4]Professor Brent Cox. Considered an Expert on Native American culture and Spirituality. Descendant of the Catawba and Cherokee Nations.

[5]Professor Brent Cox. Considered an Expert on Native American culture and Spirituality. Descendant of the Catawba and Cherokee Nations.

[6] The Holy Bible. King James Version. Genesis 2:7.

[7] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States

[8]Professor Brent Cox. Considered an Expert on Native American culture and Spirituality. Descendant of the Catawba and Cherokee Nations.

[9]Professor Brent Cox. Considered an Expert on Native American culture and Spirituality. Descendant of the Catawba and Cherokee Nations.

[10] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crazy_Horse

[11] Professor Brent Cox. Considered an Expert on Native American culture and Spirituality. Descendant of the Catawba and Cherokee Nations.

[12]Professor Brent Cox. Considered an Expert on Native American culture and Spirituality. Descendant of the Catawba and Cherokee Nations.

[13]Professor Brent Cox. Considered an Expert on Native American culture and Spirituality. Descendant of the Catawba and Cherokee Nations. 

[14] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrilineality

[15] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Awashonks  

[16] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequoyah

[17] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_American_Languages_Act_of_1990

[18]Professor Brent Cox. Considered an Expert on Native American culture and Spirituality. Descendant of the Catawba and Cherokee Nations.

Photos 1-8. U. S. History Images. Native Americans. Native American Tribes. Native American Cultures. Hatzigeorgiou, Karen J. U.S. History Images. 2011. Online. Internet. <http://ushistoryimages.com>. October 2011.

 Resources/ Resource Information:

1. Brent Cox, who serves as West Tennessee Commissioner- Tennessee Historical Commission - Native American representative; Instructor at the University of Tennessee at Martin with expertise in Native American History and Tennessee History. He is Organizer of Native American Day of the annual Civil Rights Conference at UTM. He is considered an expert on Native American culture and Spirituality and as mentioned above, a descendant of the Catawba and Cherokee nations.
2. Access Genealogy (one of the most comprehensive sites about Native or Indian Americans) http://www.accessgenealogy.com  
3.  Official Website of the Eastern Band Cherokee Nation- North Carolina

               http://www.cherokee-nc.com/index.php        

               History and Culture Page:  http://www.cherokee-nc.com/index.php?page=57

 The following Authors and/or their Works were recommended by Professor Cox:

Book- Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American Textbook Got Wrong by Author, James Loewen

Book: Indian Givers: How the Native Americans Transformed the World by Jack Weatherford. Broadway Books. 2010.

Book: Native Roots: How the Indians Enriched America by Jack Weatherford. Ballantine Books. 1992.

Book- God is Red by Vine Deloria, Jr.

Novel: Fool’s Crow by James Welch. Viking Press. 1986.

Book: HEART OF THE EAGLE: DRAGGING CANOE AND THE EMERGENCE OF THE CHICKAMAUGA CONFEDERACY. Brent Cox. Trailblazers Publishers LLC.1999. References of Professor Brent Cox’s works can be found in Colin Calloway's books and numerous others.

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Disclaimer: Author of the Tribute to Native Americans-Nations rich in Heritage and Culture, Mrs. Dorothy Barron, makes no claim to the validity or accuracy of information provided or presented here. She has not endorsed or received endorsements financially or otherwise; this four (4) Part series has been written as a Tribute to Native or Indian Americans.

From me to you,

Mrs. Dorothy Barron, Author

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